Polarization
Light waves are transverse: that is, the vibrating electric vector associated with each wave is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. A beam of unpolarized light consists of waves moving in the same direction
Albania, Flag Of
On November 28, 1443, the national hero of Albania, a prince known as Skanderbeg (George Kastrioti), raised his flag over the fortress of Kruj� in defiance of the Turks who ruled the country. His small mountainous nation was able to resist the forces of the Ottoman Empire, although after Skanderbeg's death in 1468 independence was lost again. His flag was red and bore a black eagle, even
Cincinnatian Series
Uppermost rocks of the Ordovician System, defined on the basis of exposures seen around the region of Cincinnati, Ohio, where they consist of numerous limestone formations that are richly fossiliferous. (The Ordovician Period lasted from 505 to 438 million years ago.) To the south and west of Cincinnati, the deposits are fragmentary, whereas deposits found in the Appalachian
Metal Point
Descendant of the stylus of classical times and ancestor of the modern pencil, a small, sharpened metal rod used for drawing precise compositions on paper or parchment. The metal could be lead, silver, copper, or gold, but silverpoint was the most common choice because it is the most suited to permanent drawing, its stroke adhering unerasably. The silverpoint was of
France, History Of, Culture and learning
Literacy and elementary learning became more widespread. The courtly tastes of the 12th century, while not obliterated, were overtaken by a more flexible and ironic sensibility evident in vernacular ballads, fables, satires, and moralizing literature, most popular in the northern towns. The burgher or knight began to take a keen interest in the tangible world about
Vienne River
River, western France, 217 mi (350 km) in length, a left-bank tributary of the Loire. Rising on the Plateau de Millevaches, the Vienne winds through the agricultural regions of five d�partements. It flows west-northwest into the Haute-Vienne d�partement, receiving the Maulde and Taurion tributaries, which are dammed in several places, before it flows past the city of Limoges.
Aerospace Industry, Research
The world's aerospace industry undertakes research and development alone and in conjunction with governmental agencies and academia. The ultimate aim of the effort is the creation of flight vehicles more advanced than their predecessors. Because of the complexity - i.e., the �systems� nature - of the industry's end products, advancements commonly require improvements
Aleutian Islands
Chain of small islands that separate the Bering Sea (north) from the main portion of the Pacific Ocean (south) and extend in an arc southwest, then northwest, for about 1,100 miles (1,800 km) from the tip of the Alaska Peninsula to Attu Island, Alaska, U.S. The archipelago consists of 14 large islands, some 55 smaller islands, and innumerable islets, all of which occupy a land area of 6,821 square miles
Aerospace Industry, Research
The world's aerospace industry undertakes research and development alone and in conjunction with governmental agencies and academia. The ultimate aim of the effort is the creation of flight vehicles more advanced than their predecessors. Because of the complexity - i.e., the �systems� nature - of the industry's end products, advancements commonly require improvements
Dynamite
Blasting explosive, patented in 1867 by the Swedish physicist Alfred Nobel. Dynamite is based on nitroglycerin but is much safer to handle than nitroglycerin alone. By mixing the nitroglycerin with kieselguhr, a porous siliceous earth, in proportions that left an essentially dry and granular material, Nobel produced a solid that was resistant to shock but readily
Abu Kalijar Al-marzuban Ibn Sultan Ad-dawlah
When his father, Sultan ad-Dawlah, died in December 1023/January 1024, Abu Kalijar's succession to the sultan's Iranian possessions of Fars and Khuzistan was challenged by his uncle Abu al-Fawaris, the ruler of Kerman, to the west. By 1028 Abu Kalijar was
Levi-civita, Tullio
Italian mathematician known for his work in differential calculus and relativity theory. At the University of Padua (1891 - 95), he studied under Gregorio Ricci Curbastro, with whom he later collaborated in founding the absolute differential calculus (now known as tensor analysis). Levi-Civita became an instructor there in 1898 and a professor
Absolute Zero
The notion that there is an ultimately lowest temperature was suggested by the behaviour of gases at low pressures: it was noted that gases seem to contract indefinitely as the temperature is decreased. It appeared that an ideal
Ubiquinone
Also called �Coenzyme Q, � any of several members of a series of organic compounds belonging to a class called quinones. Widely distributed in plants, animals, and microorganisms, ubiquinones function in conjunction with enzymes in cellular respiration (i.e., oxidation-reduction processes). The naturally occurring ubiquinones differ from each other only slightly in chemical structure,
Hess's Law Of Heat Summation
Rule first enunciated by Germain Henri Hess, a Swiss-born Russian chemist, in 1840, stating that the heat absorbed or evolved in any chemical reaction is a fixed quantity and is independent of the path of the reaction or the number of steps taken to obtain the reaction. Hess's law is a consequence of the first law of thermodynamics and need not be considered a separate thermodynamic
Music, Music and world view
Again, music proves its protean susceptibilities in the service of disparate world views. Among humanist psychologists (such as the Americans Gordon Allport and Abraham Maslow) music may be one among other means toward self-fulfillment, integration, self-actualization; for aesthetic Existentialists (such as the philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre) it is yet another
Vienna State Opera
German �Staatsoper � theatre in Vienna, Austria, that is one of the world's leading opera houses, known especially for performances of works by Richard Wagner, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Richard Strauss. The original theatre, located on the Ringstrasse, was built in 1869 to house the expanded operations of the Vienna Court Opera (Hofoper), by which name it was originally known. Particularly
Moses, Assumption Of
A pseudepigraphal work (not in any biblical canon), a prophecy of the future relating to Israel, put into the mouth of Moses and addressed to Joshua just before the great lawgiver died. Using Moses' predictions and instructions to Joshua as a framework, the book's unknown author sets forth a brief history of Israel from Moses to the messianic age as viewed in apocalyptic
Tavoy
The surrounding area lies between the Andaman Sea and lower Thailand and is drained
Assam
State of India. It is located in the northeastern part of the country and has an area of 30,285 square miles (78,438 square kilometres). It is bounded to the north by the kingdom of Bhutan and the state of Arunachal Pradesh; to the east by the states of Nagaland and Manipur; to the south by the states of Mizoram and Tripura; and to the west by the state of Meghalaya, Bangladesh, and the state of West
Alderman
Member of the legislative body of a municipal corporation in England and the United States. In Anglo-Saxon England, ealdormen, or aldermen, were high-ranking officials of the crown who exercised judicial, administrative, or military functions. Earls, the governors of shires (counties), and other persons of distinction were among those who received the title of alderman.
Peter, Hugh
Educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, he was ordained a priest in the Anglican Church in 1623. He went to London in 1626 and was appointed preacher at St. Sepulchre's, but his unorthodox views led to the suspension of his preaching license in 1627. He
Sun Tzu
The book is traditionally attributed to Sun Tzu (personal name Sun Wu), a military strategist and general who served the state of Wu near the end of the Spring and Autumn Period (770 - 476 BC). It is more likely, however, that it was written early in the Warring
Loden Coat
Loden cloth is dyed in several colours, but bluish green is the most common. The jacket sometimes has a stiff, standup collar and is trimmed with
Shiraz Rug
Handwoven floor covering made in the district around the city of Shiraz in southern Iran. The best known are the Qashqa'i rugs, products of nomadic tribesmen. A group of tribes - some Arab, some Turkish, forming the Khamseh Confederation - weaves rugs somewhat similar to the Qashqa'i pieces in a variety of patterns, as do the inhabitants of certain Iranian weaving villages in
Actinide Element
Any of a series of 15 consecutive chemical elements in the periodic table from actinium to lawrencium (atomic numbers 89 - 103). As a group they are significant largely because of their radioactivity. Although several members of the group, including uranium (the most familiar), occur naturally, most are man-made. Both uranium and plutonium have been used in atomic bombs for their
Buyantu
Also known as �Ayurparibhadra�, Chinese temple name (y�an) �Jen Tsung�, Pinyin romanization �Yuan Renzong� (reigned 1311 - 20), Mongol emperor of the Y�an dynasty of China, who was a patron of literature. He distributed offices more equitably between Chinese and Mongols than had his predecessors, and during his reign commercial ties with Europe increased.
Frederick Iii
Frederick, the son of Duke Ernest of Austria, inherited the Habsburg possessions of Inner Austria (Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, and Gorizia) on his father's death in 1424. By 1439 he had become the senior member of
Amoroso Lima, Alceu
Amoroso Lima's multifaceted
Bridgwater
Bristol Channel seaport, Sedgemoor district, administrative and historic county of Somerset, England. The town, which is located in Sedgemoor district, lies to the east of the Quantock Hills, mainly on the right bank of the River Parrett. The first of several charters dates from 1200, and wine and wool fairs were economically important in medieval times. The Church of St.
Padre Island
Barrier island, 113 miles (182 km) long and up to 3 miles (5 km) wide, lying along the Gulf Coast of Texas, U.S. It extends south from Corpus Christi to Port Isabel and is separated from the mainland by Laguna Madre. The island consists largely of grassy dunes and a broad beach that yields shellfish such as clams and marine snails. The area is well known for its mackerel, sailfish, and tarpon
Plunket (of Newton), William Conyngham Plunket, 1st Baron
Called to the Irish bar in 1787, Plunket was highly successful as an equity lawyer. Entering
Tabwa
Tabwa observe matrilineal
Bahubali
After winning a duel with his half-brother for control of the kingdom, Bahubali is believed by the Jains to have realized the transience of temporal affairs and renounced the world. According
Turbat
Town, Balochistan province, Pakistan. The town is located on the left bank of the Kech River, which is a tributary to the Dasht River. The area in which Turbat is situated is drained to the south by the Dasht River; the Makran Range to the north and east descends to coastal plains in the south. The town is a marketplace for dates grown in the surrounding region and has a date-processing
Soil
The biologically active, porous medium that has developed in the uppermost layer of the Earth's crust. Soil is one of the principal substrata of life on Earth, serving as a reservoir of water and nutrients, as a medium for the filtration and breakdown of injurious wastes, and as a participant in the cycling of carbon and other elements through the global ecosystem. It
Farm Machinery
The operations of farming for which machines are used are diverse. For
Elizabeth Of Hungary, Saint
The daughter of King Andrew II of Hungary, she was betrothed in infancy to Louis IV, son of Hermann I, landgrave of Thuringia,
Pharmaceutical Industry, Dispersions
Aerosols were formerly defined as colloidal systems consisting of very finely subdivided liquid or solid particles dispersed in a gas. Today the term aerosol, in general usage, has become synonymous with a pressurized package. For pharmaceutical purposes aerosols may be divided into two types. Space sprays disperse the medicament as a finely divided spray with
Bradley, Edward R.
As a student at Cheyney State College (now Cheyney University of Pennsylvania), Bradley worked his way into broadcasting by volunteering at Philadelphia radio station WDAS-FM. After graduating with a degree in education (B.S., 1964), Bradley became an elementary schoolteacher but continued to work
Wild Ginger
Canadian wild ginger,
Biblical Literature, I Maccabees
The first two of the four books of Maccabees are deuterocanonical (accepted by the Roman Catholic Church). The First Book of the Maccabees is preserved in the Greek translation from the Hebrew original, the original Hebrew name of it having been known to the Christian theologian Origen of Alexandria. At the beginning, the author of the book mentions Alexander the
Alismatales
Also called �Alismales, � the water-plantain order of flowering plants, belonging to the class Liliopsida (monocotyledons; characterized by a single seed leaf). Most species are aquatic and grow submerged or partially exposed to the air in marshes and other freshwater habitats. Many are aquatic weeds that hinder irrigation and navigation, though others provide important habitats for
Hover Fly
Also called �Flower Fly, or Syrphid Fly, � any member of the insect family Syrphidae (order Diptera), which numbers about 4,000 species. Their various common names refer to the behaviour of hovering around flowers. Hover flies, with their yellow markings, resemble wasps or bees but do not bite or sting. They are distinguished from other flies by a false (spurious) vein that closely parallels the fourth longitudinal
Lemur
Generally, any of the more primitive primates except the tree shrews. In this sense, the term covers not only the typical lemurs (family Lemuridae) but also the avahi, indri, sifaka, aye-aye, loris, potto, and galago (qq.v.). All these animals are characterized by a naked, moist tip to the muzzle; comblike, forward-directed lower front teeth; and a clawlike nail on the second toe of
Alkali Metal
Any of the six chemical elements that make up Group I of the periodic table - namely, lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), cesium (Cs), and francium (Fr). (See Figure.) The alkali metals are so called because they form alkalies (i.e., strong bases capable of neutralizing acids) when they combine with other elements. Sodium and potassium are the sixth and seventh most abundant
Regino Von Pr�
Born to a noble family, Regino joined the Benedictine monastic order at the flourishing Abbey of Pr�m and studied theology and canon law. He was elected
Afghanistan, Nadir Shah
In 1738, after a year's siege, the city of Kandahar fell to Nadir Shah's army of 80,000 men. Nadir Shah seized Ghazna and Kabul and occupied the Mughal capital at Delhi in 1739. His booty included
Okawa, Isao
Japanese businessman (b. 1926, Osaka, Japan - d. March 16, 2001, Tokyo, Japan), was chairman of the Sega Corp. from 1984 until his death. Okawa was involved with a number of Japanese technology companies. He founded CSK Corp., a computer services company that was Sega's largest shareholder, and served on the boards of several other companies, including the ASCII Corp. and Bellsystem 24, Inc. As chairman
Coihaique
City, capital of Ais�n Region in southern archipelagic Chile, 50 mi (80 km) inland of Puerto Ais�n and 25 mi (40 km) west of the Argentine border. Founded in 1912 by a small group of German colonists, it is situated among grassy steppes between the Coihaique and Simpson rivers, in a densely forested and extremely wet coastal region of Patagonian Chile (rainfall reaches 58 in. [1,485 mm] annually). Although
Swan Theatre
Elizabethan theatre built about 1595 by Francis Langley in Bankside, London. A description and a sketch of the Swan made by Johann DeWitt of Utrecht (the sketch copied by Arend van Buchell) have proved most useful in attempts to reconstruct the form of the Elizabethan theatre. The last known mention of the Swan Theatre was in 1632.
Valdivia, Pedro De
Valdivia served with the Spanish army in Italy and Flanders before being sent to South America in 1534. During the Peruvian civil war (1538), he fought with Francisco Pizarro against Diego de Almagro. For the Chilean
Bri�onnet, Guillaume
Bri�onnet was the son of King Charles VIII's counsellor Guillaume Bri�onnet (1445 - 1514), who after his wife's death took holy orders and became bishop of Saint-Malo, archbishop of Reims, archbishop of Narbonne,
